1. Free Malayalam Books Pdf

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The Malayalam script (Malayāḷalipi; IPA:[mələjɑːɭə lɪpɪ]) is a Brahmic script used commonly to write Malayalam, which is the principal language of Kerala, India, spoken by 35 million people in the world.^[3] Malayalam script is also widely used for writing Sanskrit texts in Kerala. Like many other Indic scripts, it is an alphasyllabary (abugida), a writing system that is partially “alphabetic” and partially syllable-based. The modern Malayalam alphabet has 15 vowel letters, 36 consonant letters, and a few other symbols. The Malayalam script is a Vatteluttu alphabet extended with symbols from the Grantha alphabet to represent Indo-Aryan loanwords.^[4]The script is also used to write several minority languages such as Paniya, Betta Kurumba, and Ravula.^[5] The Malayalam language itself was historically written in several different scripts.

Overview

Characteristics

The basic characters can be classified as follows:

• Vowels (സ്വരം, svaram)
  1. Independent vowel letters
  2. Dependent vowel signs
• Consonant letters (വ്യഞ്ജനം, vyañjanam)

An independent vowel letter is used as the first letter of a word that begins with a vowel. A consonant letter, despite its name, does not represent a pure consonant, but represents a consonant + a short vowel /a/ by default. For example, ക is the first consonant letter of the Malayalam alphabet, which represents /ka/, not a simple /k/. A vowel sign is a diacritic attached to a consonant letter to indicate that the consonant is followed by a vowel other than /a/. If the following vowel is /a/, no vowel sign is needed. The phoneme /a/ that follows a consonant by default is called an inherent vowel. In Malayalam, its phonetic value is unrounded[ɐ],^[6] or [ə] as an allophone. To denote a pure consonant sound not followed by a vowel, a special diacritic virama is used to cancel the inherent vowel. The following are examples where a consonant letter is used with or without a diacritic.

• കിki = കka + ി vowel sign i
• കുku = കka + ു vowel sign u
• കൈkai = കka + ൈ vowel sign ai
• ക്k = കka + ് virama
• കka = consonant letter കka itself, with no vowel sign

Malayalam alphabet is unicase, or does not have a case distinction. It is written from left to right, but certain vowel signs are attached to the left (the opposite direction) of a consonant letter that it logically follows. In the word കേരളം (Kēraḷam), the vowel sign േ (ē) visually appears in the leftmost position, though the vowel ē logically follows the consonant k.

History

Free Malayalam Books Pdf

Malayalam was first written in the Vatteluttu alphabet, an ancient script of Tamil. However, the modern Malayalam script evolved from the Grantha alphabet, which was originally used to write Sanskrit. Both Vatteluttu and Grantha evolved from the Brahmi script, but independently.

Vatteluttu alphabet

Vatteluttu (Malayalam:വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, Vaṭṭeḻuttŭ^?, “round writing”) is a script that had evolved from Tamil-Brahmi and was once used extensively in the southern part of present-day Tamil Nadu and in Kerala.

Malayalam was first written in Vatteluttu. The Vazhappally inscription issued by Rajashekhara Varman is the earliest example, dating from about 830 CE.^[1][2] In the Tamil country, the modern Tamil script had supplanted Vatteluttu by the 15th century, but in the Malabar region, Vatteluttu remained in general use up to the 17th century,^[7] or the 18th century.^[8] A variant form of this script, Kolezhuthu, was used until about the 19th century mainly in the Kochi area and in the Malabar area.^[9] Another variant form, Malayanma, was used in the south of Thiruvananthapuram.^[9]

Grantha

According to Arthur Coke Burnell, one form of the Grantha alphabet, originally used in the Chola dynasty, was imported into the southwest coast of India in the 8th or 9th century, which was then modified in course of time in this secluded area, where communication with the east coast was very limited.^[10] It later evolved into Tigalari-Malayalam script was used by the Malayali, Havyaka Brahmins and Tulu Brahmin people, but was originally only applied to write Sanskrit. This script split into two scripts: Tigalari and Malayalam. While Malayalam script was extended and modified to write vernacular language Malayalam, the Tigalari was written for Sanskrit only.^[10][11] In Malabar, this writing system was termed Arya-eluttu (ആര്യ എഴുത്ത്, Ārya eḻuttŭ),^[12] meaning “Arya writing” (Sanskrit is Indo-Aryan language while Malayalam is a Dravidian language).

Vatteluttu was in general use, but was not suitable for literature where many Sanskrit words were used. Like Tamil-Brahmi, it was originally used to write Tamil, and as such, did not have letters for voiced or aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit but not used in Tamil. For this reason, Vatteluttu and the Grantha alphabet were sometimes mixed, as in the Manipravalam. One of the oldest examples of the Manipravalam literature, Vaishikatantram (വൈശികതന്ത്രം, Vaiśikatantram), dates back to the 12th century,^[13][14] where the earliest form of the Malayalam script was used, which seems to have been systematized to some extent by the first half of the 13th century.^[1][8]

Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, a poet from around the 17th century, used Arya-eluttu to write his Malayalam poems based on Classical Sanskrit literature.^[10] For a few letters missing in Arya-eluttu (ḷa, ḻa, ṟa), he used Vatteluttu. His works became unprecedentedly popular to the point that the Malayali people eventually started to call him the father of the Malayalam language, which also popularized Arya-eluttu as a script to write Malayalam. However, Grantha did not have distinctions between e and ē, and between o and ō, as it was as an alphabet to write a Sanskrit language. The Malayalam script as it is today was modified in the middle of the 19th century when Hermann Gundert invented the new vowel signs to distinguish them.^[10]

By the 19th century, old scripts like Kolezhuthu had been supplanted by Arya-eluttu – that is the current Malayalam script. Nowadays, it is widely used in the press of the Malayali population in Kerala.^[15]

Malayalam and Tigalari are sister scripts are descended from Grantha alphabet. Both share similar glyphic and orthographic characteristics.

Orthography reform

In 1971, the Government of Kerala reformed the orthography of Malayalam by a government order to the education department.^[16][17] The objective was to simplify the script for print and typewriting technology of that time, by reducing the number of glyphs required. In 1967, the government appointed a committee headed by Mr Sooranad Kunjan Pillai who was the editor of Malayalam Lexicon project. It reduced number of glyphs required for Malayalam printing from around 1000 to around 250. Above committee's recommendations were further modified by another committee in 1969.

This proposal was later accepted by major newspapers in January 1971. Then from 15 April 1971, the Malayalam new years day, the reformed script came into effect by the government order released on 23 March 1971.

Recommendations by the committees

Use non-ligating vowel signs for u, ū, and r̥

In the traditional orthography, that had been taught in the primary education till that time, any consonant or consonant ligature followed by the vowel sign of u, ū, or r̥ are represented by a cursive consonant-vowel ligature. The glyph of each consonant had its own way of ligating with these vowel signs. This irregularity was simplified in the reformed script. As per that, a vowel sign or the consonant sign would always have a disconnected symbol that does not fuse with the base consonant.

Examples:

• ku:' src='./I/m/MLkuO.png' height='21' width='28'> → ക‍ു
• kū: ക‍ൂ → ക‌ൂ
• kr̥: കൃ → ക‌ൃ
• nu:' src='./I/m/MLnuO.png' height='21' width='28'> → ന‌ു
• śu:' src='./I/m/MLshuO.png' height='21' width='28'> → ശ‌ു

Reph is replaced with Chillu ṟa

In traditional orthography, the reph is represented by a dot over the subsequent letter. Instead of that, explicit stand-alone Chillu ṟa would be used.

• rkka: ൎക്ക → ർക്ക

Split uncommon conjuncts with Chandrakkala

Also, most of traditional consonant-consonant ligatures, especially the less common ones only used to write words of Sanskrit origin, were split into non-ligated forms with explicit chandrakkala. For example:

• ഗ്g + ദda = gda:' src='./I/m/MLgdaO.png' height='21' width='28'>→ ഗ്‌ദ
• ല്‌l + തta = lta:' src='./I/m/MLltaO.png' height='21' width='28'>→ ല്‌ത

Use non-ligating sign for conjoining ra

Any consonant or consonant ligature followed by the conjoining ra is represented by a cursive tail attached to the consonant or the consonant-ligature. In the reformed script, this consonant sign would be disconnected from the base and represented as a left-bracket like symbol placed on the left side of the cluster.

• kra: ക‍്ര → ക‌്ര
• kru: ക‍്ര‍ു → ക‌്ര‌ു

Current Status

Today the reformed orthography, is commonly called put̪iya lipi (Malayalam:പുതിയ ലിപി, ^?) and traditional system, paḻaya lipi (Malayalam:പഴയ ലിപി, ^?).^[18] Current print media almost entirely uses reformed orthography. The state run primary education introduces the Malayalam writing to the pupils in reformed script only and the books are printed accordingly. However, the digital media uses both traditional and reformed in almost equal proportions as the fonts for both the orthographies are commonly available.

Malayalam letters

Vowels

Vowel letters and vowel signs

The following tables show the independent vowel letters and the corresponding dependent vowel signs (diacritics) of the Malayalam script, with romanizations in ISO 15919, transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

r̥, r̥̄, l̥, l̥̄, used to write Sanskrit words, are treated as vowels. They are phonetically not vowels in Malayalam or in Classical Sanskrit, but originally they were (see Proto-Indo-European language and Vedic Sanskrit). The letters and signs for r̥̄, l̥, l̥̄ are very rare, and are not considered as part of the modern orthography.^[19]

The vowel signs ā, i, ī are placed to the right of a consonant letter to which it is attached. The vowel signs e, ē, ai are placed to the left of a consonant letter. The vowel signs o and ō consist of two parts: the first part goes to the left of a consonant letter and the second part goes to the right of it. In the reformed orthography, the vowel signs u, ū, r̥ are simply placed to the right of the consonant letter, while they often make consonant-vowel ligatures in the traditional orthography.

It is important to note the vowel duration as it can be used to differentiate words that would otherwise be the same. For example, /kalam/ means 'earthenware pot' while /kaːlam/ means 'time' or 'season'.^[20]

Anusvaram

An anusvaram (അനുസ്വാരംanusvāram), or an anusvara, originally denoted the nasalization where the preceding vowel was changed into a nasalized vowel, and hence is traditionally treated as a kind of vowel sign. In Malayalam, however, it simply represents a consonant /m/ after a vowel, though this /m/ may be assimilated to another nasal consonant. It is a special consonant letter, different from a 'normal' consonant letter, in that it is never followed by an inherent vowel or another vowel. In general, an anusvara at the end of a word in an Indian language is transliterated as ṁ in ISO 15919, but a Malayalam anusvara at the end of a word is transliterated as m without a dot.

Visargam

A visargam (വിസർഗം, visargam), or visarga, represents a consonant /h/ after a vowel, and is transliterated as ḥ. Like the anusvara, it is a special symbol, and is never followed by an inherent vowel or another vowel.

Consonants

Basic consonant letters

The following tables show the basic consonant letters of the Malayalam script, with romanizations in ISO 15919, transcriptions in IPA, and Unicode CHARACTER NAMES. The character names used in the report of the Government of Kerala committee (2001) are shown in lowercase italics when different from Unicode character names.^[19] Those alternative names are based on the traditional romanization used by the Malayali people. For example, tha in “Thiruvananthapuram” is neither ISO tha nor Unicode THA, but tha in this sense (ത). The ISCII (IS 13194:1991) character names are given in parentheses when different from the above.

The consonants /ʈ, ɖ, ɳ/ are retroflex. In Malayalam, they are produced by touching the underside of the tip of the tongue to the front part of the hard palate (apico-palatal).

• ^ADental nasal or alveolar nasal, depending on the word.
• ^BAlveolar tap.
• ^C The tip of the tongue almost touches the teeth ([l̪]), forward than the English l.
• ^D[ʋʷ].
• ^E[ʃʷ].
• ^F Voiceless apico-palatal approximant[ʂ̺̠˕].^[21]
• ^GDental sibilant fricative [s̪].
• ^H Apico-palatal [ɭ̺̠].
• ^I This glyph is a ligature (KA + VIRAMA + SSA), but is sometimes listed as a basic unit. Often pronounced /ʈ͡ʂa/.
• ^J Voiced apico-palatal approximant [ʐ̺̠˕].^[21] This consonant is usually described as /ɻ/, but also can be approximated by /ɹ/.^[22]
• ^K (1) Repetition of this letter (റ + റ) often represents a geminatedvoiceless alveolar plosive, /tːa/; (2) chillu-n + this letter (ൻ + റ) often represents /nda/; (3) otherwise alveolar trill (apical) /ɲa/. Optionally, (1) may be transliterated as ṯṯa instead of ṟṟa, (2) as nṯa (not nḏa) instead of nṟa.
• ^L Corresponds to Tamil ṉaன. Used rarely in scholarly texts to represent the alveolar nasal, as opposed to the dental nasal.^[23] In ordinary texts both are represented by naന.
• ^M Used rarely in scholarly texts to represent the voiceless alveolar plosive, as opposed to the voiceless dental plosive represented by taത. In ordinary texts this sound is represented by ṟaറ.^[23]

Chillus

A chillu, or a chillaksharam (ചില്ലക്ഷരം, cillakṣaram), is a special consonant letter that represents a pure consonant independently, without help of a virama. Unlike a consonant represented by an ordinary consonant letter, this consonant is never followed by an inherent vowel. Anusvara and visarga fit this definition but are not usually included. ISCII and Unicode 5.0 treat a chillu as a glyph variant of a normal (“base”) consonant letter.^[24] In Unicode 5.1 and later, however, chillu letters are treated as independent characters, encoded atomically.^[25]

There are at least six known chillu letters. Chillu-k is rare. The other five are quite common.

Chandrakkala

As virama

Chandrakkala് (ചന്ദ്രക്കല, candrakkala) is a diacritic attached to a consonant letter to show that the consonant is not followed by an inherent vowel or any other vowel (for example, കka → ക്k). This kind of diacritic is common in Indic scripts, generically called virama in Sanskrit, or halant in Hindi.

Half-u

At the end of a word, the same symbol sometimes represents a very short vowel, known as “half-u”, or samvruthokaram (സംവൃതോകാരം, saṁvr̥tōkāram), or kuṯṯiyal ukaram (കുറ്റിയൽ ഉകരം).^[26] The exact pronunciation of this vowel varies from dialect to dialect, but it is approximately [ə]^[27] or [ɨ], and transliterated as ŭ (for example, നna → ന്nŭ). Optionally, a vowel sign u is inserted, as in നു് (= ന + ു + ്). According to one author, this alternative form is historically more correct, though the simplified form without a vowel sign u is common nowadays.^[28] This means that the same spelling ന് may represent either n or nŭ depending on the context. Generally, it is nŭ at the end of a word, and n elsewhere; നു് always represents nŭ.

Ligatures

Consonant ligatures

Like in other Indic scripts, a virama is used in the Malayalam script to cancel—or “kill”—the inherent vowel of a consonant letter and represent a consonant without a vowel, so-called a “dead” consonant. For example,

1. ന is a consonant letter na,
2. ് is a virama; therefore,
3. ന്‌ (na + virama) represents a dead consonant n.

If this nന്‌ is further followed by another consonant letter, for example, maമ, the result may look like ന്‌മ, which represents nma as na + virama + ma. In this case, two elements nന്‌ and maമ are simply placed one by one, side by side. Alternatively, nma can be also written as a ligatureന്മ.

Generally, when a dead consonant letter C₁ and another consonant letter C₂ are conjoined, the result may be either:

1. A fully conjoined ligature of C₁+C₂;
2. Half-conjoined—
   • C₁-conjoining: a modified form (half form) of C₁ attached to the original form (full form) of C₂
   • C₂-conjoining: a modified form of C₂ attached to the full form of C₁; or
3. Non-ligated: full forms of C₁ and C₂ with a visible virama.^[29]

If the result is fully or half-conjoined, the (conceptual) virama which made C₁ dead becomes invisible, only logically existing in a character encoding scheme such as Unicode. If the result is non-ligated, a virama is visible, attached to C₁. The glyphs for nma has a visible virama if not ligated (ന്‌മ), but if ligated, the virama disappears (ന്മ). Usually the difference between those forms is superficial and both are semantically identical, just like the meaning of the English word palaeography does not change even if it is spelled palæography, with the ligature æ.

Common consonant ligatures

Several consonant-consonant ligatures are used commonly even in the new orthography.

The ligature mpaമ്പ was historically derived from npaന്‌പ. The ligatures cca, bba, yya, and vva are special in that a doubled consonant is denoted by a triangle sign below a consonant letter.

Consonant + ya, va, la, ra

(1) The consonant letter ya is generally C₂-conjoining after a consonant in both orthographies. For example,

• kക് + yaയ = kyaക്യ
• pപ് + yaയ = pyaപ്യ

In kyaക്യ, a variant form of ya () is placed after the full form of kaക, just like kiകി is written kaക followed by the vowel sign i ി. In other words, the variant form of ya () used after a consonant letter can be considered as a diacritic. Since it is placed after the base character, it is sometimes referred to as a post-base form. An exception is yyaയ്യ (see above).

(2) Similarly, va after a consonant takes a post-base form:

• kക് + vaവ = kvaക്വ
• pപ് + vaവ = pvaപ്വ

An exception is vvaവ്വ (see above).

(3) The consonant letter la after a consonant traditionally takes a below-base form. These forms are used also in the new orthography, though some fonts do not support them.

• kക് + laല = klaക്ല
• pപ് + laല = plaപ്ല
• lല് + laല = llaല്ല (Not ' src='./I/m/Mal_lla_wrong.png' height='18' width='27'>)

(4) A consonant letter ra after a consonant usually takes a pre-base form in the reformed orthography, while this combination makes a fully conjoined ligature in the traditional orthography.

• kക് + raര = kraക്ര (Traditional: ' src='./I/m/Mal_kra_old.png' height='19' width='28'>)
• pപ് + raര = praപ്ര (Traditional: ' src='./I/m/Mal_pra_old.png' height='19' width='28'>)

nṯa and ṯṯa

The ligature nṯa is written as nന്‌ + ṟaറ and pronounced /nda/. The ligature ṯṯa is written as ṟറ് + ṟaറ.

In those two ligatures, a small ṟa‌റ is written below the first letter (chillu-n if it is a dead n). Alternatively, the letter ṟa is sometimes written to the right of the first letter, making a digraph (just like ωι used instead of ῳ in Greek). The spelling ൻറ is therefore read either nṟa (two separate letters) or nṯa (digraph) depending on the word. Similarly, ‌റ‌റ is read either ṟaṟa or ṯṯa.^[25]

Dot reph

In the traditional orthography, a dead consonant r before a consonant sometimes takes an above-base form, known as a dot reph, which looks like a short vertical line or a dot. Generally, a chillu-r is used instead of a dot reph in the reformed orthography.

• rര് + gaഗ = rga' src='./I/m/Mal_rga_old.png' height='21' width='32'> (Reformed: ർഗ)
• rര് + jaജ = rja' src='./I/m/Mal_rja_old.png' height='21' width='32'> (Reformed: ർജ)

Other symbols

Malayalam numbers and fractions are written as follows. These are archaic and no more commonly used.

Unicode

Malayalam script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 1991 with the release of version 1.0.

Block

The Unicode block for Malayalam is U+0D00–U+0D7F:

Chillus in Unicode

For example, avanഅവൻ (“he”) is written as aഅ + vaവ + chillu-nൻ, where chillu-n represents the n sound without a vowel. In other Indic scripts, the same word would be possibly written as a + va + na + virama. However, in Malayalam script, that sequence represents a different word, avanŭഅവന്‌ (“to him”), and is not interchangeable with avan.^[30] This is because in modern Malayalam script, the sign for a virama also works as the sign for a vowel ŭ at the end of a word, and is not able to cleanly “kill” the inherent vowel in this case.^[27]

To differentiate a pure consonant (chillu) and a consonant with ŭ, zero-width joiner (ZWJ) and zero-width non-joiner (ZWNJ) were used before Unicode 5.1.^[24] However, this system was problematic. Among other things, glyph variants specified by ZWJ or ZWNJ are supposed to be non-semantic, whereas a chillu (expressed as letter + virama + ZWJ) and the same consonant followed by a ŭ (expressed as letter + virama + ZWNJ) are often semantically different. After a long debate,^[27][28] six chillus now have their own code points starting from Unicode 5.1, though applications should also be prepared to handle data in the representation specified in Unicode 5.0.^[25] This means, fonts should display chillus in both sequences; while an input method should output standard chillus.

The ligature nṯa' src='./I/m/Ml_nta.png' height='21' width='21'> is very common and supported by most Malayalam fonts in one way or another, but exactly how it should be encoded was not clear in Unicode 5.0 and earlier, and two incompatible implementations are currently in use.^[31] In Unicode 5.1 (2008), the sequence to represent it was explicitly redefined as chillu-n + virama + ṟa (ൻ്റ).^[25]

See also

Notes

1. Ager, Simon (1998). 'Malayalam alphabet, pronunciation and language'. Omniglot. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
2. 'Vazhapally Temple'. Vazhappally Sree Mahadeva Temple. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
3. ↑ Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). 'Malayalam'. Ethnologue: Languages of the World (16th ed.). SIL International. Retrieved 2009-10-31.
4. ↑ Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University Press. p.85.
5. ↑ Ethnologue (16th ed.): 'Paniya', 'Kurumba, Betta', and 'Ravula'.
6. ↑ Canepari (2005), pp. 396, 140.
7. ↑ Burnell (1874), p. 39.
8. 'The Script'. Malayalam Resource Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
9. 'Alphabets'. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 2009-10-29.
10. Burnell (1874), p. 35.
11. ↑ 'Grantha alphabet'. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-28.
12. ↑ 'EPIGRAPHY - Inscriptions in Grantha Script'. Department of Archaeology, government of Tamil Nadu. Retrieved 2009-11-11.
13. ↑ Nampoothiri, N. M. (1999), 'Cultural Traditions in Medieval Kerala' (PDF) in Cherian, P. J., Perspectives on Kerala History: The Second Millennium, Kerala Council for Historical Research, ISBN 81-85499-35-7, retrieved 2009-11-20.
14. ↑ 'Development of Literature'. Malayalam Resource Centre. Retrieved 2009-11-20.
15. ↑ Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich. A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1996.
16. ↑ 'Malayalam Script—Adoption of New Script for Use—Orders Issued'(PDF). Government of Kerala. 1971. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
17. ↑ 'Malayalam by R. E. Asher, T. C. Kumari'.
18. ↑ John, Vijay. 'The Concept of ലിപി (Lipi)'. Learn Malayalam Online!. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
19. 'Report of the Committee on Malayalam Character Encoding and Keyboard Layout Standardisation'. Kerala Gazette. Government of Kerala. 46 (2023). December 18, 2001. Archived from the original on October 6, 2009. Retrieved 2009-10-08. See also the May 2001 version (PDF).
20. ↑ Asher, R. E. Malayalam. Ed. T. C. Kumari 1934-. London ; New York: Routledge, 1997.
21. Canepari (2005), pp. 397, 185.
22. ↑ Mohanan (1996), p.421.
23. Everson, Michael (2007). 'Proposal to add two characters for Malayalam to the BMP of the UCS'(PDF). ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3494. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
24. 'South Asian Scripts-I'(PDF). The Unicode Standard 5.0 — Electronic Edition. Unicode, Inc. 1991–2007. pp.42–44. Retrieved 2009-09-08.
25. 'Malayalam Chillu Characters'. Unicode 5.1.0. Unicode, Inc. 2008. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
26. ↑ Chitrajakumar, R; Gangadharan, N (2005-08-07). 'Samvruthokaram and Chandrakkala'(PDF). Unicode Consortium. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2014-07-12. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
27. Muller, Eric (2006). 'Malayalam cillaksarams'(PDF). JTC1/SC2/WG2 N3126 L2/06-207. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
28. Chitrajakumar, R. & Gangadharan, N. (2005). 'Chandrakkala. Samvruthokaram. Chillaksharam.'(PDF). L2/05-210. Retrieved 2009-09-10.
29. ↑ Constable, Peter (2004). 'Clarification of the Use of Zero Width Joiner in Indic Scripts'(PDF). Public Review Issue #37. Unicode, Inc. Retrieved 2009-09-10.External link in work= (help)
30. ↑ Johny, Cibu C. (2005). 'Unicode Public Review Issue #66: Encoding of Chillu Forms in Malayalam'. Retrieved 2009-09-16. See also L2/05-085 (PDF).
31. ↑ 'Encoding of Chillu Forms in Malayalam'. Public Review Issue #66. Unicode, Inc. 2005. Retrieved 2009-09-24.External link in work= (help)

References

• Mohanan, K. P. (1996). 'Malayalam Writing'. In Daniels, Peter T. & Bright, William. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Burnell, Arthur Coke (1874). Elements of South-Indian Palæography from the Fourth to the Seventeenth Century A.D. Trübner & Co.
• Canepari, Luciano (2005). '19.29 Malayalam'. A Handbook of Phonetics. LINCOM. ISBN3-89586-480-3.

External links

• Unicode Code Chart for Malayalam (PDF)

A screenplay, or script, is a written work by screenwriters for a film, television program or video game. These screenplays can be original works or adaptations from existing pieces of writing. In them, the movement, actions, expression and dialogues of the characters are also narrated. A screenplay written for television is also known as a teleplay.

• 1Format and style
• 2Screenplay formats
  • 2.1Feature film

Format and style[edit]

The format is structured so that one page equates to roughly one minute of screen time, though this is only used as a ballpark estimate and often bears little resemblance to the running time of the final movie.^[1] The standard font is 12 point, 10 pitch Courier Typeface.^[2]

The major components are action (sometimes called 'screen direction') and dialogue. The action is written in the present tense and is limited to what can be heard or seen by the audience, for example descriptions of settings, character movements, or sound effects. The dialogue is the words the characters speak, and is written in a center column.

Unique to the screenplay (as opposed to a stage play) is the use of slug lines. A slug line, also called a master scene heading, occurs at the start of every scene and typically contains three pieces of information: whether the scene is set inside (interior/INT.) or outside (exterior/EXT.), the specific location, and the time of day. Each slug line begins a new scene. In a 'shooting script' the slug lines are numbered consecutively for ease of reference.

Physical format[edit]

American screenplays are printed single-sided on three-hole-punched paper using the standard American letter size (8.5 x 11 inch). They are then held together with two brass brads in the top and bottom hole. The middle hole is left empty as it would otherwise make it harder to quickly read the script.

In the United Kingdom, double-hole-punched A4 paper is normally used, which is slightly taller and narrower than US letter size. Some UK writers format the scripts for use in the US letter size, especially when their scripts are to be read by American producers, since the pages would otherwise be cropped when printed on US paper. Because each country's standard paper size is difficult to obtain in the other country, British writers often send an electronic copy to American producers, or crop the A4 size to US letter.

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A British script may be bound by a single brad at the top left hand side of the page, making flicking through the paper easier during script meetings. Screenplays are usually bound with a light card stock cover and back page, often showing the logo of the production company or agency submitting the script, covers are there to protect the script during handling which can reduce the strength of the paper. This is especially important if the script is likely to pass through the hands of several people or through the post.

Increasingly, reading copies of screenplays (that is, those distributed by producers and agencies in the hope of attracting finance or talent) are distributed printed on both sides of the paper (often professionally bound) to reduce paper waste. Occasionally they are reduced to half-size to make a small book which is convenient to read or put in a pocket; this is generally for use by the director or production crew during shooting.

Although most writing contracts continue to stipulate physical delivery of three or more copies of a finished script, it is common for scripts to be delivered electronically via email.

Screenplay formats[edit]

Screenplays and teleplays use a set of standardizations, beginning with proper formatting. These rules are in part to serve the practical purpose of making scripts uniformly readable 'blueprints' of movies, and also to serve as a way of distinguishing a professional from an amateur.

Feature film[edit]

Motion picture screenplays intended for submission to mainstream studios, whether in the US or elsewhere in the world, are expected to conform to a standard typographical style known widely as the studio format which stipulates how elements of the screenplay such as scene headings, action, transitions, dialog, character names, shots and parenthetical matter should be presented on the page, as well as font size and line spacing.

One reason for this is that, when rendered in studio format, most screenplays will transfer onto the screen at the rate of approximately one page per minute. This rule of thumb is widely contested — a page of dialogue usually occupies less screen time than a page of action, for example, and it depends enormously on the literary style of the writer — and yet it continues to hold sway in modern Hollywood.

There is no single standard for studio format. Some studios have definitions of the required format written into the rubric of their writer's contract. The Nicholl Fellowship, a screenwriting competition run under the auspices of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, has a guide to screenplay format.^[3] A more detailed reference is The Complete Guide to Standard Script Formats.^[4]

Spec screenplay[edit]

A 'spec script' or speculative screenplay is a script written to be sold on the open market with no upfront payment, or promise of payment. The content is usually invented solely by the screenwriter, though spec screenplays can also be based on established works, or real people and events.^[5]

Television[edit]

For American TV shows, the format rules for hour-long dramas and single-camera sitcoms are essentially the same as for motion pictures. The main difference is that TV scripts have act breaks. Multi-camera sitcoms use a different, specialized format that derives from stage plays and radio. In this format, dialogue is double-spaced, action lines are capitalized, and scene headings, character entrances and exits, and sound effects are capitalized and underlined.

Drama series and sitcoms are no longer the only formats that require the skills of a writer. With reality-based programming crossing genres to create various hybrid programs, many of the so-called 'reality' programs are in a large part scripted in format. That is, the overall skeleton of the show and its episodes are written to dictate the content and direction of the program. The Writers Guild of America has identified this as a legitimate writer's medium, so much so that they have lobbied to impose jurisdiction over writers and producers who 'format' reality-based productions. Creating reality show formats involves storytelling structure similar to screenwriting, but much more condensed and boiled down to specific plot points or actions related to the overall concept and story.

Documentaries[edit]

The script format for documentaries and audio-visual presentations which consist largely of voice-over matched to still or moving pictures is different again and uses a two-column format which can be particularly difficult to achieve in standard word processors, at least when it comes to editing or rewriting. Many script-editing software programs include templates for documentary formats.

Screenwriting software[edit]

Various screenwriting software packages are available to help screenwriters adhere to the strict formatting conventions. Detailed computer programs are designed specifically to format screenplays, teleplays, and stage plays. Such packages include BPC-Screenplay, Celtx, Fade In, Final Draft, FiveSprockets, Montage, Movie Magic Screenwriter, Movie Outline 3.0, Scrivener, Movie Draft SE and Zhura. Software is also available as web applications, accessible from any computer, and on mobile devices, such as Fade In Mobile and Scripts Pro.

The first screenwriting software was SmartKey, a macro program that sent strings of commands to existing word processing programs, such as WordStar, WordPerfect and Microsoft Word. SmartKey was popular with screenwriters from 1982 to 1987, after which word processing programs had their own macro features.

Script coverage[edit]

Script coverage is a filmmaking term for the analysis and grading of screenplays, often within the script-development department of a production company. While coverage may remain entirely verbal, it usually takes the form of a written report, guided by a rubric that varies from company to company. The original idea behind coverage was that a producer's assistant could read a script and then give their producer a breakdown of the project and suggest whether they should consider producing the screenplay or not.^[6]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^JohnAugust.com 'How accurate is the page-per-minute rule?
2. ^JohnAugust.com 'Hollywood Standard Formatting'
3. ^Guide to screenplay format from the website of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences
4. ^The Complete Guide to Standard Script Formats (2002) Cole and Haag, SCB Distributors, ISBN0-929583-00-0.
5. ^'Spec Script'. Act Four Screenplays. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
6. ^'What is Script Coverage?'. WeScreenplay. Retrieved 5 July 2016.

Further reading[edit]

• David Trottier (1998). The Screenwriter's Bible: A Complete Guide to Writing, Formatting, and Selling Your Script. Silman-James Press. ISBN1-879505-44-4. - Paperback
• Yves Lavandier (2005). Writing Drama, A Comprehensive Guide for Playwrights and Scritpwriters. Le Clown & l'Enfant. ISBN2-910606-04-X. - Paperback
• Judith H. Haag, Hillis R. Cole (1980). The Complete Guide to Standard Script Formats: The Screenplay. CMC Publishing. ISBN0-929583-00-0. - Paperback
• Jami Bernard (1995). Quentin Tarantino: The Man and His Movies. HarperCollins publishers. ISBN0-00-255644-8. - Paperback
• Luca Bandirali, Enrico Terrone (2009), Il sistema sceneggiatura. Scrivere e descrivere i film, Turin (Italy): Lindau. ISBN978-88-7180-831-4.
• Riley, C. (2005) The Hollywood Standard: the complete and authoritative guide to script format and style. Michael Weise Productions. Sheridan Press. ISBN0-941188-94-9.

External links[edit]

• Writing section from the MovieMakingManual (MMM) Wikibook, especially on formatting.
• Screenplays at Curlie
• All Movie Scripts on IMSDb (A-Z)imsdb.com